Drunk Driving Essays

Tanked Driving Essays Tanked Driving Essay Tanked Driving Essay Leads into your theory explanation, more often than not. Start your presentation by utilizing: C] Interesting Information Drunk driving is the second most regular reason for death among youth somewhere in the range of 16 and 25 years old. This rate turns out to be considerably additionally worried among youth who as of late got their first drivers permit. These significant measurements have driven the Director of Mothers Against Drunk Driving to advance a crusade on the consciousness of issues in regards to alcoholic driving and push the legislature towards harder enactment that would guarantee the security - and lives-of todays more youthful residents CLC Anecdotes Markus Shore, a battle chief for Barack Obama, entered the battles base camp in Chicago wearing a Change I Can Believe In button. When he ventured outside onto Richard Daley Square midtown in the mid-western American city, he was welcomed by a crowd of the two supporters of Beams rival, John McCain, just as activists who were against Beams approaches on advanced education. In fact, the strategies C] Questions Is Barack Obama a supporter of governmental policy regarding minorities in society in American post-optional organizations? What are John Moccasins arrangements on improving accomplishment among the oppressed? These inquiries mirror the inborn contrasts between the two mens arrangements on instruction at both the lower and more elevated levels. We should comprehend these approach contrasts to comprehend why the American open CLC Summary Information York college, the one post-auxiliary organization in Ontario to offer a drenching program in French, has as of late started investigating its arrangements on expecting understudies to show capabilities in any event two dialects other than English. Its leader accepts what approach best catches your eye? You might need to attempt different ways to deal with see which is best Keep centered. You need to begin with fascinating focuses, yet they ought to be applicable to the subject of your paper. The Conclusion C] The end is the thing that makes your paper stick in the perusers mind. The end carries conclusion to the peruser, summarizing your focuses or giving a last viewpoint on your point. All the end needs is three or four in number sentences which don't have to follow any set recipe. Audit the primary concerns or quickly portray your emotions about the point. Indeed, even a story can end your exposition in a helpful manner. The end ought not present new thoughts. The end can highlight the more extensive significance, significance or ramifications of your papers contentions. Start your decision by utilizing: C] Summaries Restate the primary concerns of your paper as per the pattern in which as they show up. Dont just reorder! Reword every one of your thoughts into a couple of sentences, all together. C Logical Conclusion As you can see, Beams and Moccasins approaches on training feature the essential political contrasts between the two battles. The distinctions uncover the inborn various belief systems among radicalism and conservatism, while the similitudes uncover the disappointments Of the current American instruction yester C] Real or Rhetorical Question Why, at that point, are individuals despite everything supporting the enactment that permits multi year-olds to drive realizing that liquor misuse is the most elevated among this age gathering? L] Speculation or Opinion From examining Beams and Moccasins approaches on advanced education, it is difficult to offer ends on the most proficient method to fix the American training framework. Maybe another government study is on hand, yet maybe, we essentially need Americans to reevaluate their qualities on what training and realizing implies.

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Why Use Diversity Statement Essay Samples?

Why Use Diversity Statement Essay Samples?Use diversity statement essay samples to help you write an interesting and persuasive diversity statement. A diversity statement is typically a standard composition essay format. In some cases, you can use the diversity statement as a template for your psychology graduate application.A diversity statement is normally a page-long essay that summarizes a variety of information about a group of people, including education, culture, race, gender, etc. This statement can include anything from the perspective of one person to a lengthy document. The purpose of this form is to address a common issue with one group and include both positives and negatives of the statement for several people.A diversity statement should always be supported by facts and figures. The essay must also discuss various factors of the group such as demographics, history, and issues like racism, classism, sexism, etc. It must not contain vague or biased statements.If you are applying to a graduate program, the diversity statement will be viewed as part of the application. Therefore, you need to make sure that you know how to prepare this information in advance. To do this, you need to read some sample diversity statements to see how others have done it. While reading the sample, you can also look up sample documents for other application categories.Even if you already have a lot of positive information about yourself, it may not be enough to make the deadline. Therefore, you need to consider using these diversity statement samples as references. You can create a note taking habit about how other people used the samples in their applications.Once you have gone through the sample diversity statement, you can prepare it as a document for your application. You can then edit the document to include your own comments, clarifications, and ideas. You can even add a few new facts or figures to better demonstrate your knowledge of diversity issues.For example, if you are applying to a psychology PhD program, you may need to edit the diversity statement to include your knowledge of the history of the field, studies, and issues concerning diversity. You may also add facts about different types of psychology studies. In this way, your diversity statement can make a strong statement of your abilities.Remember that the diversity statement is just one element of your application to a graduate program. If you are not familiar with the form, you can use the sample diversity statement as a guide to help you make a powerful diversity statement.

Malee Swot Analysis - 2085 Words

Malee Analysis General information: Malee Sampran Plc. is the manufacturer and distributor of processed agricultural products such as canned fruit, UHT and pasteurized fruit juice, canned coffee, canned tea, drinking water in PET bottle and aseptic bag under Malee brands and customers’ brands in domestic and overseas markets. In addition, the Company is also a distributor of Farm Chokchai brands for UHT and pasteurized milk. Due to the Company has been accepted by the customers for more than 30 years, the Company, under the management of the experienced and capable management team, has grown continuously with several products available in the domestic and export markets. Strength: †¢ Large Amount of Budget As at December 31, 2010†¦show more content†¦However, the growth of value market in 2008 grew up 20% comparing with year 2007, the ministry of commerce forecasted that Thai fruit market expected to achieve 6% in 2009. The fruit market slow down due to global economic especially, the pineapple market that accounted for 60%of total export market; and relied on the US market for its export destination. Weaknessï ¼Å¡ †¢ Negative Financial Performance The Company’s financial performance did not meet the intended target. The Company suffered net loss for a few years which led to the negative shareholders’ equity. Consequently, the Company received the noticed letter from the SET on March 10, 2009 that the SET would consider delisting the Company if they could not comply with the listing requirements. †¢ Legal Dispute On May 31, 2001, the Company was sued by Boon Malee Food Processing Co., Ltd. for requesting the Company to pay debt for the rental of Baht 1,975,680. . The Court of the First Instance judged to be the Red Case No. Sor. 293/2547, which forced the defendant to repay Baht 1,975,680 with interest of 7.5% p.a. after the sue date until the completion of the case. Laterr, the Provincial Court of Thanurbury appointed to hear the decision of the Supreme Court on December 12, 2008. The Defendant filed the complaint to the court that the PlaintiffShow MoreRelatedEnergy Drink Project for Marketing Management4267 Words   |  18 PagesBusiness Environment/Situation Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦......................6 1.1 Introduction(Background of this Project and Business) 1.2 Company Profile 1.3 Proportion of Healthy Energy Drink Industry (Situation Analysis) Chapter 2: Market Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..8 2.1 Market Segment (Geographic, demographic, Behavior) 2.2 Market Needs 2.3 Market Growth Chapter 3: Environmental SWOT Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..10 3.1 PEST Analysis 3.1.1 Political Situation 3

Nature Vs. Nurture Nature And Nurture - 844 Words

For many years, there has been on the ongoing debate that is referred to as nature vs. nurture. It poses a question that many theorists have contested. Do human personalities and behaviors relate to our genetic makeup, or are we directly influenced by the environment and people that we are subjected to? What is more important, genes or environment? While some theorists take either one side over the other, some believe that both nature and nurture play an active role in human development. What is the nature side of the debate? Nature mainly refers to genetic features that are passed down to children from their parents or ancestors. Examples of these would be the height, stature, eye color, hair color, and other physical features. Children’s temperament is also due to partially due to their genetic makeup. Does our genetic makeup affect an individual’s personality or behaviors, or are people simply products of their environment? The nurture side of the argument states that infants are molded and influenced by those that surround us, and born lacking personality. Nurture includes the development of children, physically due to nutrition, stress, intellectually, and socially. According to this argument, a child who is very outgoing and talkative has learned this behavior from those around him/her. Being influenced by one’s environment can also have negative effects. A child who witnesses his father abusing his mother is more likely to become a batterer of women than a childShow MoreRelatedNature Vs Nurture : Nature And Nurture1821 Words   |  8 PagesNature and nurture are usually seen as very different things, but they are actually somewhat similar and even integrated. There is a huge debate over which holds more influence over how people develop and whether they behave based on genes or their environment. In Sincero’s article Nature and Nurture Debate she discusses arguments for both sides, s aying behavior may be completely in a person’s genes, or it could come from experience and influence. Many people believe â€Å"that the criminal acts, tendencyRead MoreNature Vs Nurture : Nature Or Nurture874 Words   |  4 Pages Nature or Nurture. Nature may be all of the genes and hereditary factors with which influence them to become who they are such as physical appearances and personality characteristics. Nurturing impacts people’s lives as well as how they are raised and all the environmental factors. In combination, these qualities can be the true identity of oneself. Many people may argue that nurture appears to a play huge factor in the two, but others may think otherwise. Not having both as a characteristic canRead MoreNature And Nurture : Nature Vs. Nurture1780 Words   |  8 PagesAs Nature Made Him: Nature vs. Nurture Human behavior is determined by both biological and environmental factors. Psychologists are interested in learning which of these factors is a greater influence on human behavior and identity. Although psychologists today generally agree that both nature and nurture play a role in conditioning behavior, there is still disagreement about the part that each of the factors have in determining behavior. The nature versus nurture debate focuses around the extentRead MoreNature Vs Nurture : Is The Nature Or Nurture?1300 Words   |  6 PagesAoS 3: Student Directed Research Investigation Unit 1 Psychology - Megan Rodrigues RESEARCH QUESTION How is the nature vs nurture debate related to a consideration of the mental disorder, schizophrenia? INTRODUCTION Schizophrenia is categorized by thoughts or experiences that seem abnormal with reality, disorganized speech or behaviour and decreased participation in regular daily activities. Difficulty with memory and concentration are sometimes also present. The two hit hypothesis generally refersRead MoreNature Vs Nurture : Nature And Nurture1821 Words   |  8 Pages Nature and nurture are usually seen as very different things, but they are actually somewhat similar and even integrated. There is a huge debate over which holds more influence over how people develop and whether they behave based on genes or their environment. In Sincero’s article Nature and Nurture Debate she discusses arguments for both sides, saying behavior may be completely in a person’s genes, or it could come from experience and influence. Many people believe â€Å"that the criminal acts, tendencyRead MoreNature Vs. Nurture : Nurture1405 Words   |  6 PagesDecember 2015 Nature vs. Nurture Very few people know that the nature vs. nurture debate actually began early on with famous Greek philosophers such as Plato and Descartes. These two theorized that certain things were inborn and occurred naturally regardless of environmental factors (Cherry 1). Most people began to witness this debate in 1896 when the phrase â€Å"Nature vs. Nurture† was coined by English polymath, Francis Galton (â€Å"Nature vs. Nurture†Origins 1). At this point the nature vs. nurture debate grewRead MoreNature Vs. Nurture : Nurture901 Words   |  4 Pagestime the proverbial nature vs. nurture question has sparked quite a debate. I hold the belief that nature vs. nurture is a zero-sum game. We essentially enter this existence, a lump of clay that needs molding in order to take form. So, I believe my creative abilities can be attributed to the sum of our genetic predisposition, the nurture of our mind, and the dynamic of both nature and nurture, with nurture being the predominant influencing factor. In psychology, nature refers to the inheritedRead MoreNature Vs Nurture And Nurture1777 Words   |  8 Pagesformed and cultivated through nature or nurture. This psychological anomaly is why I am writing this paper. Ever since I have enrolled in, and taken, a psychology class during my junior year, I have questioned whether every little emotion and action is because of nature or nurture. No topic is more widely explored and researched than morality. It cannot be scientifically or psychologically proven or tested, making any claim highly controversial. This idea, of nature vs nurture, that I had previously researchedRead MoreNature Vs. Nurture : Nature Versus Nurture1337 Words   |  6 PagesNature vs. Nurture There are many different ways that behavior can be explained, especially on the terms of nature vs. nurture. Aggression is a behavior that has been extensively analyzed in a complex manner and the causes of it can be explained many different ways. Aggression can be defined as hostile or destructive behavior that can cause injury or destructive outlook especially when caused by frustration. Nature can be defined as aspects of behavior that have been inherited or are genetic, whileRead MoreNature Vs. Nurture : Nature Versus Nurture Essay1939 Words   |  8 PagesNature versus Nurture You got your dark brown hair from your father and you got your looks from your mother, but where did you get your excitement for sports and your love for all animals? A person’s physical characteristics lean more towards genes and heredity, but our genes are not mentioned as much when behavior is the topic. This is how the nature versus nurture debate first began. Scientists who believe in the nature theory believe that people behave the way they do due to heredity and genes

The Devil Lake Trout Population Study - 872 Words

Genetic diversity is a measurement of the variation in the nucleotides, genes, chromosomes, whole genome or phenotype of an organism. An understanding of the genetic diversity of lake trout populations is required for effective conservation and management. The Devil Lake trout population has a higher mean heterozygosity than Loughborough Lake’s. Lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush, is the keystone species in most northern temperate lakes in North America. They are the top carnivorous species in the fresh water lakes they inhabit and therefore are important in structuring the aquatic ecosystems in which they live. There are several reasons that the genetic variation is greater in Devil Lake. Fishing enthusiasts tend to remove the oldest and most heterozygous individuals. As humans continue to fish and populations begin to dwindle the lakes are restocked by fish bred in hatcheries. Some lakes have greater water temperature change throughout the year, the greater the change the high er the required fitness of the population in order to adequately adapt. If the environment in one lake is diverse it can lead to disruptive selection causing more variation in a populations genome. Loss of genetic diversity in natural populations has often been attributed to a severe reduction in population size. Testing of nine loci in three heavily fished areas concluded that all loci that were strongly polymorphic in the 1982 study showed a reduction in heterozygosity with the exception of oneShow MoreRelatedGenetic Diversity and Survival of the Fittest1447 Words   |  6 Pagesin a population at a particular gene locus. Genetic variation within a population is important in maintaining or increasing the fitness of members in the population and ultimately the survival of the species. Fitness is the ability for a species of a certain genotype to reproduce and is often times equal to the proportion of the individual’s genes in all the genes of the next generation. Positive correlations have been made between the heterozygosity at the loci and fitness of the Lake Trout, whichRead MoreAn Analysis of the Observed Heterozygosity of Lake Trout Essay1791 Words   |  8 PagesAn analysis of the observed heterozygosity of Lake Trout populations from three lakes: Devil, Eagle, and Loughborough, inferred from microsatellite genotypes. Abstract: This study was undertaken in order to compare the heterozygosity of three Lake Trout populations at various loci. Samples of twenty-five Lake Trout were collected from three lakes: Devil, Eagle and Loughborough, all three of which are situated north of Kingston, Ontario. An autoradiograph was used to analyze the genotypes ofRead MoreBrand Building Blocks96400 Words   |  386 Pagesgain sales. Pressure to include promotions (such as the couponing used by packaged-goods brands or the cash rebates used by automobile firms) makes it difficult to keep the brand-building effort on track. In addition, companies are dividing the population into smaller and more refined target markets, often reaching them with specialized media and distribution channels. It is tempting to develop different brand identities for some or all of these new target segments. Developing and managing multipleRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesexposure to marketing principles, if not to marketing practice. The intended market of the book comprises the following segments: âž ¡ Students reading for degrees involving marketing (especially MBA candidates and senior undergraduates following business studies programmes) âž ¡ Students of The Chartered Institute of Marketing who are preparing for the Marketing Planning paper in the CIM’s Diploma examinations âž ¡ Marketing practitioners who will benefit from a comprehensive review of current thinking in the field

Psy 387 Study Guide First Exam free essay sample

Genes- units of heredity that maintain their structural identify from one generation to another xi. Come in pairs because they are aligned along chromosomes xii. Gene is a portion of a chromosomes, which is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid xiii. A strand of DNA serves as a template for ribonucleic acid which is a single strand molecule xiv. Can be either homozygous ( identical pair of genes on the two chromosomes) or heterozygous (unmatched pair of genes) xv. Dominant – gene shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition xvi. Recessive- gene shows its effect only in the homozygous condition j. Proteins xvii. Enzymes- biological catalyst that regulate chemical reactions in the body 4. Sex-Linked and Sex-limited Genes k. Sex-linked genes- genes located on sex chromosomes (usually X chromosomes) xviii. Male: XY Female: XX l. Autosomal genes- chromosomes that are not on sex chromosomes m. Sex-limited genes- which are present in both sexes (generally on autosomal genes) but active mainly in one sex xix. Ex- breast size in women 5. Heredity and environment n. To determine what kind of contributions heredity and environment has, researchers focus on comparing monozygotic (from one egg) twins and dizygotic (from two eggs) twins. o. Second kind of evidence is studies of adopted children to see if they relate to parents p. Third kind researchers find genes linked to a disorder q. Sometimes, environment might be based on genes due to the multiplier effect: if genetic or prenatal influences produce even a small increase in some activity the early tendency will change the environment in a way that magnifies that tendency Nerve Cells and Nerve Impulses Chap 2 . Anatomy of Neurons and Glia r. Neurons – Receive information and transmit it to other cells 7. The Structure of an Animal Cells s. Membrane- the surface of a cell, also called plasma membrane, is a structure that separated the inside of the cell form the outside environment t. All animal cells have (other than red blood cells) have nucleus the structure that contains the chromosome, mitochondrion the structure that performs metabolic activities, providing the energy that the cell requires for all other activities. Also has ribosomes- are the sites at which the cell synthesizes new protein molecules endoplasmic reticulum- a network of thin tubes that transport newly created proteins to other locations 8. The Structure of a Neuron u. Neurons are distinguished from other cells by their shape, the larger neurons have components: dendrites, soma (cell body) an axon and presynaptic terminals v. Motor Neuron- has its soma in the spinal cord. It receives excitation from other neurons through its dendrites and conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle w. Sensory neuron- is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation such as light sound or touch x. Dendrites- are branching fibers that get narrower near their ends 4. Receives information from other neurons 5. Dendritic spines – the short outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses y. Cell Body or Soma contains the nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and other structures found in most cells z. Axon- is a thin fiber of constant diameter, in most case longer than the dendrites xx. Axon is the information sender of the neuron, converting an impulse toward other neurons or an organ or muscle xxi. Many vertebrate axons are covered with an myelin sheath- insulating material, with interruptions known as nodes of Ranvier xxii. An axon has man branches each of which swells at its tip forming a presynaptic terminal (end bulb or bouton) xxiii. Afferent axon brings information inside, efferent brings information out {. Interneuron or intrinsic neuron– if a cell’s dendrite and axon are entirely contained within a single structure 9. Glia |. Glia are the other major components of the nervous system, do not transmit information over long distance xxiv. Glia are smaller but also more numerous than neurons xxv. Astrocytes- wrap around the presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons. They help synchronize the activity of the axons enabling them to send messages in waves they also help remove waste material created when neurons die and control the amount of blood flow to each brain area. Lastely they dilate blood vessels to bring more nutrient into that area 6. Blood brain barrier 7. Allows small uncharged molecules, including oxygen and carbon dioxide cross freely 8. Molecules that dissolve in the fats of the membrane also cross passively 9. For certain other essential chemicals the brain uses active transport, to bring in glucose, amino acids etc xxvi. Microglia- very small cells also remove waste material as well as viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms xxvii. Oligodendrocytes- build myelin sheath in the brain and spinal cord and schwann cells in the PNS xxviii. Radial Glia guide the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic development }. Nourishment Of Vertebrate Neurons xxix. Vertebrate neuron depends almost entirely on glucose, a simple sugar xxx. Glucose is practically the only nutrient that crosses the blood-brain barrier in adults xxxi. Thiamine- a chemical that is necessary for the use of glucose 10. The Nerve Impulse Module 2. 2 ~. The Resting Potential of the neuron xxxii. Electrical gradient- a difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell xxxiii. In the absence of any outside disturbance the cell membrane mains an polarization- meaning a difference in electrical charge between two locations xxxiv. Resting potential- the difference in voltage in a resting neuron, which is mainly the result of negatively charged proteins inside the cell . Forces acting on sodium and potassium ion xxxv. Sodium-potassium pump a protein complex repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions into the cell. xxxvi. When the neuron is at rest, two forces act on sodium both tending to push it into the cell. 10. First consider the electrical gradient, sodium is positively charged and the inside of the cell is negatively charged. Opposite electrical charges attract so the electrical gradient tends to pull sodium into the cell. 11. Second consider the concentration gradient; the difference in distribution of ions across the membrane- sodium is more concentrated outside than inside so just by the laws of probability sodium is more likely to enter the cell than leave. . The Action Potential xxxvii. Hyperpolarization- which means increased polarization xxxviii. Depolarize- reduce its polarization toward zero xxxix. Threshold of excitation-a massive depolarization of the membrane. 12. Causes a rapid flow of ions across the membrane. xl. Action potential- a rapid depolarization and slight reversal of the usual polarization . The molecular basis of the action potential xli. The membrane proteins that control sodium entry are voltage-gated channels membrane channels whose permeability depends on the voltage difference across the membrane xlii. All-or-none law- amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it . The Refractory period xliii. Refractory period- immediately after an action potential , the cell resists the production of further action potentials 13. First part is called the absolute refractory period, where the membrane cannot produce an action potential regardless of the stimulation 14. The second part is the relative refractory period, a stronger than usually stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential . Propagation of the action potential xliv. Action potential begins on the axon hillock, which is a swelling where the axon exits the soma xlv. Propagation of the action potential- describes the transmission of an action potential down an axon xlvi. Reviewing action potential 15. As a result of synaptic input, sodium channels open and depolarize the axon membrane to its threshold 16. Sodium ions rush in and depolarize the membrane even further 17. Positive charge flows down the axon and opens voltage-gated sodium channels at the next point 18. At the peak of the action potential, the sodium gates snap shut. They remain closed for the next millisecond or so, despite the depolarization of the membrane 19. Because the membrane is depolarized, voltage-gated potassium channels open 20. Potassium ions flow out of the axon, returning the membrane toward its original depolarization 21. After the membrane returns to its original level of polarization the voltage-dependent potassium channels close . The myelin Sheath and salutatory conduction xlvii. Myelin- an insulating material composed of fats and proteins xlviii. Myelinated axons- those covered with a myelin sheath is the same, found only in vertebrates xlix. Salutatory conduction- the jumping of action potentials from node to node l. Local neurons-neurons without axons exchange information with only their closest neighbors li. Graded potential- membrane potential that vary in magnitude without following the all-r –none law 11. Chapter 3: Synapses lii. in late 1800’s ramon y cajal found a narrow gap separating one neuron from another. liii. In 1906 charles scrot Sherrington physiologically demonstrated that communications between one neuron and the next differs from communications along a single axon 22. Che inferred a specialized gap between neurons and introduced the term synapse . Properties of synapses liv. Reflexes- automatic muscular responses to stimuli 23. the circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response is called a reflex arc 24. Sherrington observed several properties – a. Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon b. Several weak stimuli presented at slightly different times or slightly different locations produce a stronger reflex than a single stimulus does c. When one set of muscles becomes excited a different set become relaxed . Temporal Summation lv. Sherrington found that repeated stimuli within a brief time have a cumulative effect, called temporal summation lvi. Sherrington surmised that a s ingle pinch produced a synaptic transmission less than the threshold for the postsynaptic neuron- the cell that receives the message (the cell that delivers the synaptic transmission is the pre-synaptic neuron) lvii. Unlike action potentials which are always depolarization’s, graded potential’s may be either depolarization (excitatory) or hyperpolarization’s (inhibitory) a graded depolarization is known as an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) 25. EPSP occurs when sodium ions enter the cell 26. If an EPSP does not cause the cell to reach its threshold the depolarization decays quickly . Spatial Summation lviii. Spatial summation- synaptic inputs from separate locations combine their effects on neurons . Inhibitory Synapses lix. Temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential or IPSP resembles an EPSP 27. Occurs when synaptic inputs selectively opens the gates for potassium ions to leave the cell carrying a positive charge with them or for chloride ions to enter the cell carrying a negative charge 12. Chemical Events at the Synapse Module 3. 2 lx. Synapses rely on chemical processes, which are much faster and more versatile. . The Sequence of Chemical Events at a synapse lxi. Events in Order 28. The neuron synthesizes chemicals that server as neurotransmitters. It synthesizes the smaller neurotransmitters in the axon terminals and neuropeptides in the cell body. 29. The neuron transports the neuropeptides that were formed in the cell body to the axon terminals or to the dendrites (Neuropeptides are released from multiple sites in the cell) 30. Action potential travels down the axon. At the presynaptic terminal, an action potential enables calcium to enter the cell. Calcium releases neurotransmitters rom the terminals and into the synaptic cleft (the space between the presynaptic and post synaptic neurons 31. The released molecules diffuse across the cleft, attach to receptors and alter activity of the postsynaptic neuron 32. The neurotransmitter molecules separate from their receptors. Depending on the neurotransmitter, it may be converted to into inactive chemicals 33. The neurotransmitter molecules may be taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or may diffuse away. In some cases, empty vesicles are returned to the cell body 34. Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to control the further release of neurotransmitter by presynaptic cells. . Types of neurotransmitters lxii. Neurotransmitter- at a synapse one neuron releases these chemicals that affect a second neuron 35. Amino acids- acids containing an amine group (NH2) 36. Neuropeptide- chains of amino acids 37. Acetylcholine-a chemical similar to an amino acid except the NH2 group has been replaced by an N(CH3)3) group 38. Monoamines- neurotransmitter containing one amine group (NH2) formed by a metabolic change in certain amino acids 39. Purines- a category of chemicals including adenosine and several of its derivatives 40. Gases- nitric oxide and possibly others lxiii. Nitric Oxide- a gas released by many small molecules 41. Increases blow flow to an area . Activation of Receptor of the Postsynaptic Cell lxiv. Ionotropic Effects- when the neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on a the membrane it opens the channels for some kind of ion 42. Begin quickly and last only about 20 ms lxv. Metabotropic effects- slower and longer lasting than inotropic effects 43. Take 30 ms or more to come into play, than last seconds minutes or longer lxvi. Neuromodulator- several properties that neuropeptides that set them apart from other transmitters . Inactivation and reuptake of Neurotransmitters lxvii. Acetylcholinesterase- the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine after it activates a receptor. xviii. Reuptake-the presynaptic neuron that takes up most of the released neurotransmitter molecules intact and reuses them 44. Occurs because of the special membrane proteins called transporters lxix. COMT- breaks down the excess dopamine into inactive chemicals that cannot stimulate the dopamine receptors lxx. Autoreceptors- receptors that detect the amount of transmitter released and inhibit further synthesis an d release after it researches a certain level. 13. Synapse, Drugs, and Addiction Modules 3. 3 . Types of Mechanisms lxxi. Antagonist- a drug that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter lxxii. Agonist- a drug that increases or mimics the effect of a neurotransmitter lxxiii. Drugs 45. If it has an affinity for a receptor if it Binds to it. 46. A drug’s efficacy is its tendency to activate the receptor lxxiv. 1. Name and briefly describe the five major philosophical approaches to the mind-body problem as described in lecture. The five major philosophical approaches to the mind-body problem are interactionism, psychophysical parallelism, epiphenomenalism, materialism, and subjective idealism (or mentalism). Interactionism is a dualistic position which posits that mind and body interact with each other. Psychophysical parallelism is a dualistic position which maintains that mind and body are separate entities that operate simultaneously, but independently from one another. Epiphenomenalism is a dualistic position which states that mind is a by-product of brain activity. Materialism is a monistic position which posits that everything can be explained in physical terms, so mind is brain activity. Subjective idealism, or mentalism, states that only mind exists, all matter is simply a figment of the imagination. 2. Briefly describe (as presented in lecture) how genetic material is expressed, using the following terms: DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and proteins. The genetic material, DNA, is transcribed by mRNA which transports the information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it is translated into proteins by means of tRNA transferring amino acids to the ribosomes in the sequence dictated by the codons on the mRNA. 1. Briefly describe (as presented in lecture) the major functions of each of the following glial cells: oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, astrocytes, microglia, and radial glia. Oligodendrocytes function to mylenate axons in the central nervous system, while Schwann cell mylenate axons in the peripheral nervous system. Astrocytes provide nutritive and functional support for neurons. Microglia work to remove waste material around neurons. Radial glia function as guides for migrating neurons. 2. Describe the five phases of an action potential (as described in lecture). During the first phase, a depolarizing signal reaches threshold and opens the voltage-gated sodium channels. During the second phase, the influx of sodium ions causes a peak depolarization until sodium channels become refractory. During the third phase, potassium rushes out of the open potassium channels, causing re-polarization. During the fourth phase, there is an overshoot of potassium efflux and the potassium channels close, while the sodium channels reset. During the fifth stage, the excess potassium dissipates and the membrane is restored to its initial resting potential. . Name and briefly describe the five steps in synaptic transmission as presented in lecture. The first step in synaptic transmission is the influx of calcium at the axon terminals. This leads to the second step, whereby the calcium triggers the migration and fusing of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane. During the third step, the neurotransmitters from the vesicles are released into the synaptic c left, a process called exocytosis. Binding of the neurotransmitters onto receptors on the post-synaptic membrane constitutes the fourth step of synaptic transmission. The fifth step is the deactivation of the transmitter by degradation or reuptake. 2. Name and briefly describe (as presented in lecture) five ways in which drugs often interfere with synaptic transmission. The first way a drug can affect synaptic transmission is by altering the synthesis or transport of neurotransmitters. A second way is by interfering with the storage or release of transmitters. A third way is by modifying the binding of transmitters on the postsynaptic membrane. A fourth way is by binding to autoreceptors. Finally, a drug can affect the breakdown or re-uptake of a neurotransmitter.